You'll have to re-sync contacts, calendars, etc. from whatever you were syncing them with. Apps will have to be re-installed and media will have to be re-synced. If things like text messages are important, you'll need to use 3rd party software to extract them from the backup. You won't be able to put them back on the phone as text messages, but at least you'll have a record of them. I've never considered them vital, personally, and if there was any information in them I really needed, I copy and paste it to Notes.
This kind of corruption happens from time to time, but seems more prevalent with the advent of iOS 5. I'm not really sure there is more corruption, just that iOS5 seems less forgiving. The root cause is most likely tied to some buggy 3rd party apps.