I have same problem... iPhone5 w. IOS 6.0.2 No calendars.. some calendars.. all calendars. (things change by the minute.)
I have One provider, apples iCloud... no google calendars, no personal web dav's
Running Mtn. Lion on all my machines...
Im miles from an apple store so thats out.
I have tried just about all the solutions above...no luck.
Solution:
I went back to BusyCal. "http://www.busymac.com/busycal/"
(It's a third party calendar that puts apples calendar to shame.)
As soon as i loaded BusyCal everything came up as it should.
My Opinion.... there is a bug in the latest IOS 6.0.2 update OR Mac OSX 10.8.2
The above is Just my Opinion.
Good Luck!