I'm using Outlook for Mac 2011 and iOS7.0.2 on my iPhone5 and found a somewhat easy/somewhat awkward solution for the calendar sync issue. It also sort of explains the overarching problem that seems to be happening.
First a little background, while on iOS6, I was unable to sync my Outlook for Mac calendar to my iPhone via iCloud. It would only work with a manual sync via iTunes. After upgrading to iOS7 (and then 7.0.2, the next week), I'd get a calendar sync issue when plugging in my phone.
I went to the Apple Store, and they had me switch from manual sync to iCloud sync, which initially seemed to work. Everything on my Outlook for Mac calendar appeared on my iPhone. I quickly realized, however, that while all previously created events had transfered over, new events were not appearing.
For those of you that use Outlook for Mac, you probably already know that in order to have your events appear on your calendar, you need to turn on "sync services" in Outlook, which then syncs your Outlook with iCal, then your iCal is what ultimately ends up syncing with your calendar on your iOS devices. After upgrading to iOS7 and then swithcing to an iCloud sync vs an iTunes sync (which stopped working with iOS7), my events on my Outlook were properly appearing in my iCal, but they were no longer transfering to my iOS devices.
I tried manually creating a test event in my iCal and immediately noticed the issue. When you create an event directly in iCal after turning on iCloud, you're given two options for saving the event; one to save the event locally on your Mac, the other to save it in iCloud. Choosing to save the event locally on my Mac will cause it not to appear on my iOS devices, but selecting iCloud, does cause it to properly appear on my iPhone/iPad.
As you can probably guess by now, the events I create in Outlook for Mac, appear in my iCal as locally saved instead of showing up as iCloud enabled. Solution--Go into iCal, open the event, and switch the category to an iCloud-enabled calendar (requires 2 clicks per event). Obviously this is a work-around, and not a true solution. My guess is that Microsoft will need to release a patch for Outlook for Mac that allows "Sync Services" to push to iCloud.