"None of these worked. It feels like the issue might be related to the MacBook or macOS (Core Audio) itself, as if the output level is being boosted by default at a software level."
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Thank you for the screenshot.
Getting this Fixed:
I might comedown to reinstalling the macOS. So, who is the seller of this Mac? If not Apple, then see if you can return it, and take this as a learning experience, knowing to always purchase one form Apple, or an AASP, to avoid fraud, and the like. If Apple, then see if you can go through them. To see ig purchasing AppleCare is an option to you, go here: Find Information About your Warranty or AppleCare Plan - Apple Support
Where to get this Serviced...
A. Take to an Apple store:
You'd setup a Genius Bar Appointment at your local Apple Store, taking it in for service. There, it will be diagnosed, and you'll be provided with your options. IF not an option, the see if Mail-In service is available to you.
Or...
B. Take this to an AASP:
See an AASP (Apple Authorized Service Provider) in your local area...
Contacting an AASP:
- Go Here: Find Locations - Apple Authorized Reseller
- Click: Service & Support
- Enter: your location information
- See: if there is an AASP nearby
- Contact: an AASP that shows up, and find out more about the services that they offer to fix the iPhone
Troubleshooting this On your Own:
A. Reinstall then Software:
If you are using any Third-Party apps here, contact eh developer. You may need to reinstall the app, as there is always the chance of a bug in the install.
B. Restart the Mac:
Having just installed the update, restart the Mac.
C. Single-Out this User:
For troubleshooting purposes, create a new Administrator user. Log into it, and then see if you get this error. If not, then it is an error with the current user. If so, then it is an error with the entire macOS. Trash this user once this has been tried.
D. Clear Temporary Internet Files
Try clearing your Temporary Internet Files (Cookies & Cache) of Safari. Cookies perform remembrance of certain site-entered data. Whereas Cache keeps a snapshot of the last time you visited a site. Use this Link: Clearing History and Cache - Apple Communities
If nothing above works...
E. Reinstall the macOS:
Nothing would be lost. It's just that misplaced items would be placed back to where they should be and corrupt system files would be replaced by clean files. Go Here: Reinstall macOS - Apple Support. Use the third bulleted method: [command + r]. IMPORTANT: To prevent data loss, be sure to back up your Mac with Time Machine, prior to the reinstall.