I have found 'network logins disabled' to be the culprit. To fix this you should, if possible, use wired ethernet to the network that needs to be accessed for login. However, this was impossible for me.
I did find two useful work-arounds
1) It is likely possible to ssh to the updated mac using a terminal window on another computer (e.g. ssh myusername@mycomputername.local). If you are going to re-image, this will enable you to save any files you need to backup before re-imaging. You copy files between macs/linux/unix computers via the scp command.
2) If you are able to get in through ssh or as another Admin user, you can remove the offending network login applications (in my case it was the Centrify and Pulse Secure). If you don't know what you are doing, you should rename instead of deleting files and directories (linux/unix mv instead of rm). You can later have someone re-install any identity-management software you deactivated to rescue your account or data.