Thanks for all the suggestions! I was able to resolve this problem by entering Recovery Mode, turning off WiFi, testing that the Thunderbolt to Gigabit Ethernet Adapter was working in Recovery Mode, then selecting the Recovery Mode option for re-installing OS X. My Mac was back working in under 45 minutes, with all settings and files intact. Except now with wired ethernet working properly. Details below. Kudos to AppleCare phone support!
What didn't work for me::
I had first tried the solutions offered in this thread and in similar threads. None helped significantly. The only thing that had helped at all was deleting files from /Library/Preferences/SystemConfiguration -- sometimes deleting just NetworkInterfaces.plist, sometimes all files except com.apple.Boot.plist -- and restarting. Unfortunately, this solution worked only briefly, for one (sometimes two) plug-ins of the adapter. After that, the the Network pane reverted to not noticing the Thunderbolt-to-Ethernet adapter at all, even though one could see (via dmesg) IOThunderboltSwitch messages for each physical plug/unplug event. If I wanted to use wired ethernet, I would have to delete the files again and restart the machine. This process worked reliably, but it is not something you want to do several times a day as you move around an office, attend meetings, etc.
My system/network:
I have Mac OS X 10.11.3 installed on a mid-2014 Retina 15" PowerBook. The Thunderbolt-to-Ethernet problem started around when I upgraded to 10.11.3, or possibly when I upgraded to 10.11.2 . I use wired ethernet pretty normally: I plug in an Apple Thunderbolt to Gigabit Ethernet Adapter directly into my MacBook Pro, and plug a standard ethernet cable -- a cat 5e/RJ45 cable which works fine at gigabit speed with other laptops -- into the adapter. The ethernet cable plugs into a simple unmanaged gigabit switch, which is plugged into the building network. I tried multiple genuine-Apple Thunderbolt to Gigabit Ethernet Adapters; all showed the same problem.
What worked for me:
1. Back up your Mac with Time Machine (just in case).
2. Shut down your Mac.
3. Unplug Thunderbolt-to-Ethernet adapter.
3. Enter Recovery Mode: hold down cmd-r, press power button,
don't let go of cmd-r until you see Apple logo and a progress bar.
4. Turn off Wi-Fi: use icon and pull-down menu in upper right of screen).
5. Test internet connectivity: Select "Get Help Online". Once in Safari, enter the address of a website or two (apple.com, nyt.com) and see if they load and if links can be followed..
6. Select "Reinstall Mac OS X". Be prepared to wait a bit, this took me 45 minutes, and that is with the usual SSD in my Retina Macbook and a very fast near-Gigabit internet connection in my office, although I don't know if much network was used.
7. Log in and plug in Thunderbolt-to-Ethernet adapter. Check Network preference pane to see if all is well. Try an unplug/wait-a-few-seconds/plug-in cycle. Try another one. With luck: rejoice!
I imagine the OS reinstall would take longer on Macs with spinning hard disk instead of SSD.
Hope this helps!